Latest Geography NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 8th to 12th)
8th				9th				10th				11th				12th

Class 8th Chapters
1. Resources	2. Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation And Wildlife Resources	3. Agriculture
4. Industries	5. Human Resources

Chapter 2 Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation And Wildlife Resources

Comparing the lives of Mamba in Tanzania and Peter in New Zealand highlights how the availability and quality of **natural resources** like land, soil, water, vegetation, and wildlife, along with the use of **technology**, significantly shape people's lifestyles and the characteristics of different places around the world. Some places are rich in resources, enabling diverse activities, while others face scarcity, limiting opportunities.

Fundamentally, a **resource** is defined as anything that has **utility** or can be used to satisfy a human need. The value or worth that its use provides is what makes an object or substance a resource. Resources can have **economic value** (something that can be traded or has monetary worth, like metals) or **non-economic value** (something valued for its beauty, cultural significance, etc., like a landscape). Both types are important because they fulfill human needs.

The value of a resource can change over **time**, often influenced by the development and application of **technology**. For example, traditional home remedies might not have economic value today, but if patented and commercially produced, they can become economically valuable resources.

Besides time and technology, **people themselves are considered the most important resource**. It is human creativity, knowledge, inventions, and discoveries that lead to the identification and creation of new resources and the improved use of existing ones. Each advancement often triggers further discoveries and innovations.

Land

**Land** is one of the most critical **natural resources**. It constitutes only about 30% of the Earth's total surface area, and not all of this small portion is suitable for human habitation.

The uneven way the global population is distributed is primarily a result of the varied characteristics of land and climate. Areas with **rugged topography** (like mountains), **steep slopes**, low-lying regions prone to **water logging**, **deserts**, and very dense **forests** are typically either sparsely populated or entirely uninhabited.

In contrast, **plains and river valleys** provide fertile and relatively flat land that is ideal for **agriculture**. Consequently, these areas tend to be the most **densely populated** regions globally.

Land Use

**Land use** refers to the different purposes for which land is utilised by humans. Common land uses include:

Agriculture (growing crops)
Forestry (managing forests for timber, conservation, etc.)
Mining (extracting minerals)
Building houses and developing residential areas
Constructing roads and infrastructure
Setting up industries and commercial facilities

The specific ways land is used in a region are determined by a combination of factors:

**Physical Factors:** Topography (shape of the land), soil quality, climate, availability of minerals, and water resources.
**Human Factors:** Population density (demand for land) and the level of technological development (ability to modify or utilise land).

Land can also be categorised based on **ownership**:

**Private Land:** Owned by individuals or families.
**Community Land:** Owned by the community for shared use, such as collecting fodder, fruits, nuts, or medicinal plants. These are also known as **common property resources**.

As the global population and its demands continue to grow, the availability of land remains finite, and its quality varies. This pressure has led people to increasingly **encroach upon common lands** for urban development (commercial areas, housing complexes) and agricultural expansion in rural areas. The rapid changes in land use patterns reflect broader cultural and societal shifts.

These changes have resulted in significant **environmental problems**, including:

Land degradation
Landslides
Soil erosion
Desertification (fertile land turning into desert)

Aerial view of Salzburg, Austria, showing diverse land uses like buildings, parks, and possibly agriculture in the background.

Fig. 2.1 shows a view of Salzburg in Austria, illustrating multiple uses of land within a single landscape, such as urban development, green spaces, and surrounding natural or agricultural areas. Observing such a picture helps understand how land is functionally divided and utilised.

Conservation Of Land Resource

The increasing global population and its demands have resulted in extensive destruction of forest cover and fertile agricultural land. This raises concerns about the potential loss of this vital natural resource. Therefore, it is crucial to control the current rate of land degradation.

Common methods employed for the **conservation of land resources** include:

**Afforestation:** Planting trees on a large scale to restore forest cover.
**Land Reclamation:** Restoring land that has been degraded or damaged (e.g., mined areas) to a usable state.
**Regulated use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers:** Minimising the use of harmful chemicals that can degrade soil and land quality.
**Checks on overgrazing:** Controlling the grazing of livestock to prevent excessive damage to vegetation cover, which protects the soil.

Soil

**Soil** is defined as the thin layer of grainy material that covers the surface of the Earth. It is intimately connected with land; the shape and characteristics of the landforms influence the type of soil found there.

Soil is composed of **organic matter** (decayed plant and animal remains), **minerals**, and **weathered rocks**. These components are formed through the process of **weathering**, which involves the breaking down and decay of exposed rocks over time due to factors like temperature changes, frost, plants, animals, and human activities. A balanced mixture of minerals and organic matter is what makes soil **fertile**, supporting plant growth.

Fig. 2.3 shows a typical soil profile, illustrating the distinct layers or horizons from the surface downwards. These layers usually include topsoil (rich in humus and supporting vegetation), subsoil (containing sand, silt, and clay), weathered rock material, and finally, the parent rock from which the soil is derived.

Landslides

**Landslides** are natural phenomena defined as the mass movement of rock, debris, or earth materials down a slope. They can be triggered by various events, often occurring in conjunction with earthquakes, floods, or volcanic activity. Extended periods of heavy rainfall are a common cause of large-scale landslides.

Landslides can have severe consequences, including blocking the flow of rivers, which can lead to the formation of dangerous river blockages. If these blocks burst, they can cause widespread destruction to settlements downstream. In hilly and mountainous regions, landslides are a major and frequent natural disaster, posing significant threats to life and property.

While landslides are natural, human activities can sometimes trigger them or exacerbate their impact, as shown in the provided case study where intense blasting near a village in Himachal Pradesh caused a massive landslide, damaging a highway and nearby areas, necessitating village evacuation. Such incidents highlight the need for caution in construction and development in vulnerable areas.

Despite the risks, scientific advancements have improved our ability to understand and manage landslide hazards. **Mitigation mechanisms** aim to reduce the risk and impact of landslides:

**Hazard mapping:** Identifying and mapping areas prone to landslides to avoid building settlements in high-risk zones.
**Construction of retention walls:** Building walls to stabilise slopes and prevent soil or rock from slipping downwards.
**Increasing vegetation cover:** Planting trees and other plants on slopes helps bind the soil together with their roots, reducing the likelihood of landslides.
**Controlling surface drainage:** Managing the flow of rainwater and natural springs on slopes to prevent water from saturating and destabilising the soil mass.

Diagram showing a retention wall on a slope to prevent landslides.

This image illustrates a **Retention Wall**, a mitigation technique used to prevent landslides by providing structural support to unstable slopes and holding back soil and rock material.

Factors Of Soil Formation

The process of soil formation is influenced by several key factors, working together over long periods. These factors vary geographically, leading to different soil types in different places.

The major factors influencing soil formation include:

**Parent Rock:** This is the original rock material from which the soil is derived. It significantly determines the soil's colour, texture, chemical properties, mineral content, and permeability.
**Climate:** Temperature and rainfall are crucial climatic factors. They influence the rate at which rocks weather (break down) and the rate of humus formation (decomposition of organic matter).
**Time:** The duration over which soil formation processes occur is essential. It determines the thickness of the soil profile and the maturity of the soil layers. Hundreds of years are needed to form just one centimetre of soil.
**Flora, Fauna, and Micro-organisms:** Living organisms, including plants, animals, and microbes, play a vital role. They affect the rate of humus formation in the soil through the decomposition of organic material.
**Relief:** The altitude and slope of the land influence soil formation. Steeper slopes tend to have thinner soil layers due to erosion, while flatter areas might see greater accumulation of soil.

Diagram showing the factors affecting soil formation: Parent rock, Climate, Time, Flora/Fauna/Micro-organism, and Relief.

Fig. 2.4 provides a visual summary of the five main factors that interact to influence the formation and characteristics of soil in any given location.

Degradation Of Soil And Conservation Measures

**Soil erosion** (the removal of topsoil by wind or water) and **soil depletion** (the loss of soil fertility) are the primary threats to soil as a valuable resource. Both human activities and natural processes can contribute to the degradation of soil.

Factors leading to soil degradation include:

Deforestation (removal of forest cover)
Overgrazing by livestock
Excessive or improper use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides
Rain wash (soil being washed away by rain)
Landslides
Floods

Various methods can be employed for **soil conservation** to protect soil from degradation and erosion:

**Mulching:** Covering the exposed ground between plants with a layer of organic material like straw. This helps to retain moisture in the soil.
**Contour barriers:** Building barriers made of stones, grass, or soil along the natural contours of a slope. Trenches are often dug in front of these barriers to collect water and prevent it from flowing directly downhill.
**Rock dam:** Piling up rocks to create barriers that slow down the flow of water. This helps prevent the formation of gullies (small channels carved by flowing water) and reduces soil loss.
**Terrace farming:** Creating broad, flat steps or terraces on steep slopes. This makes flat surfaces available for cultivation, reduces the speed of surface runoff, and significantly lessens soil erosion.
**Intercropping:** Planting different crops in alternating rows or strips. These crops are often sown at different times, providing continuous ground cover that helps protect the soil from being washed away by rain.
**Contour ploughing:** Ploughing fields parallel to the contours of a hill slope. This creates natural furrows that act as barriers, slowing down the flow of water as it moves down the slope.
**Shelter belts:** Planting rows of trees, particularly in coastal and dry regions. These tree barriers help to break the force of strong winds, preventing wind erosion and protecting the soil cover.

Photo illustrating Terrace Farming on steep slopes.

Fig. 2.5 shows **Terrace Farming**, a method of cultivating sloped land by creating flat levels, effectively reducing soil erosion and managing water flow.

Diagram illustrating Contour Ploughing on a hill slope.

Fig. 2.6 shows **Contour Ploughing**, where ploughing follows the natural curves of a slope to create barriers that slow down water flow and prevent erosion.

Photo illustrating Shelter Belts of trees planted in rows.

Fig. 2.7 shows **Shelter Belts**, rows of trees planted to reduce wind speed and protect soil from wind erosion, often used in dry or coastal areas.

Water

**Water** is an essential and vital **renewable natural resource**. It covers approximately **three-fourths (75%) of the Earth's surface**, earning our planet the nickname "water planet." Life on Earth is believed to have originated in the oceans roughly 3.5 billion years ago. Today, oceans still cover about two-thirds of the Earth's surface and support a vast array of marine plant and animal life.

However, the challenge is that **ocean water is saline (salty)** and unsuitable for direct human consumption or most agricultural uses. **Freshwater** accounts for a very small percentage of the total water on Earth, only about **2.7%**. Of this freshwater, nearly 70% exists in inaccessible forms like **ice sheets and glaciers** in regions like Antarctica, Greenland, and mountainous areas. This means that only about **1% of the total water on Earth is available and fit for human use**. This usable freshwater is found as **groundwater**, surface water in rivers and lakes, and water vapour in the atmosphere.

Due to its limited availability for direct use, freshwater is considered the **most precious substance on Earth**. The total volume of water on Earth remains constant; it is neither added nor removed from the planet. Its perceived abundance varies because it is constantly moving through the **water cycle**, a continuous process involving evaporation, precipitation, and run-off, circulating water between oceans, the air, and the land.

Humans use enormous quantities of water daily, not just for drinking and sanitation but also extensively in production processes. Major uses include agriculture (irrigation), industries, and generating hydroelectricity from dams and reservoirs. The increasing global population, rising demand for food crops (including cash crops), rapid urbanisation, and improving standards of living are all driving up water consumption.

The increase in water consumption has been significant. In 1975, global human water consumption was around 3850 cubic kilometers per year. By 2000, this had soared to over 6000 cubic kilometers per year.

Problems Of Water Availability

Despite water being a renewable resource, many regions around the world face severe **water scarcity**. Areas significantly affected by freshwater shortages include most of Africa, West Asia, South Asia, parts of the western USA, north-west Mexico, parts of South America, and all of Australia. Countries situated in climatic zones prone to droughts often experience significant problems with water availability.

Water shortage can result from natural variations in **seasonal or annual rainfall**. However, scarcity is also frequently caused by **over-exploitation** of water sources (using more water than can be replenished naturally) and **contamination** or pollution of existing water bodies, rendering the water unfit for use.

Conservation Of Water Resources

Ensuring access to clean and sufficient water is a major global challenge. Therefore, urgent steps are needed to **conserve this dwindling resource**. Even though water is renewable, overuse and pollution make it unusable for human purposes.

Major contaminants of water bodies include:

Discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage.
Agricultural chemicals (fertilisers and pesticides).
Industrial effluents (wastewater).

These contaminants introduce harmful substances like nitrates, metals, and pesticides into water. Many of these chemicals are **non-biodegradable**, meaning they do not break down naturally and can enter human bodies through contaminated water, posing health risks. **Water pollution can be controlled by treating wastewater** (effluents) appropriately before it is released into water bodies.

Photo of the River Yamuna polluted with sewage, industrial effluents, and garbage.

Fig. 2.8 shows the River Yamuna affected by pollution from sewage, industrial waste, and garbage. This image illustrates the impact of human activities on freshwater sources, making them unfit for use and highlighting the need for pollution control measures.

Beyond pollution control, several methods aid in water conservation:

**Forest and vegetation cover:** Maintaining forests and other plant cover helps slow down the surface run-off of rainwater, allowing more water to seep into the ground and **replenish underground water** sources.
**Water harvesting:** This process involves collecting and storing rainwater, often from rooftops, for future use. It is a way to save surface run-off water that would otherwise flow away. On average, a short period of rain can collect thousands of litres of water.
**Lining canals:** Canals used for irrigation should be properly lined (e.g., with concrete) to minimise water loss through seepage into the ground.
**Efficient irrigation methods:**
- **Sprinklers:** These systems effectively irrigate areas by spraying water, reducing losses through seepage and evaporation compared to traditional flooding methods.
- **Drip or trickle irrigation:** Very useful in dry regions with high evaporation rates. This method delivers water directly to the plant roots drop by drop, minimising water loss.

Adopting these various methods of irrigation and water management can significantly conserve the valuable freshwater resource.

Photo of a water sprinkler irrigating a field.

Fig. 2.9 shows a water sprinkler system in operation. Sprinklers represent an efficient method of irrigation that conserves water by reducing waste through seepage and evaporation compared to older techniques.

Natural Vegetation And Wildlife

**Natural vegetation** (plants) and **wildlife** (animals, birds, insects, aquatic life) are integral components of the **biosphere**. The biosphere is the narrow zone where the lithosphere (land), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air) interact, supporting life. Within the biosphere, all living beings are interconnected and dependent on each other for survival, forming an **ecosystem**.

Both vegetation and wildlife are extremely valuable natural resources:

**Plants (Vegetation) provide:**
- Timber (wood for construction, fuel, etc.)
- Shelter for animals
- Oxygen (essential for breathing)
- Protection for soil (preventing erosion)
- Help in growing crops (fertile soil)
- Act as shelter belts (reducing wind erosion)
- Aid in storing underground water
- Offer fruits, nuts, latex, turpentine oil, gum, medicinal plants, and materials like paper.
**Wildlife provides:**
- Milk, meat, hides, and wool (from animals)
- Honey (from insects like bees)
- Pollination of flowers (crucial for plant reproduction, done by insects and birds)
- Act as decomposers (breaking down organic matter, done by insects and birds)
- Serve as scavengers (cleaning the environment by feeding on dead organisms, like vultures).

All forms of wildlife, regardless of size, play a role in maintaining the delicate **balance within the ecosystem**. The vulture's role as a scavenger, for instance, is vital for keeping the environment clean.

Photo of Brahma Kamal, a medicinal herb.

Fig. 2.11 shows Brahma Kamal, identified as a medicinal herb. This highlights the diverse uses of plants, extending beyond food and shelter to include valuable medicinal properties, making natural vegetation an important resource for traditional and modern medicine.

Fig. 2.12 shows a Blue Kingfisher. Birds are part of wildlife and play various ecological roles, including feeding on insects and acting as decomposers, contributing to the balance of the ecosystem.

Fig. 2.14 shows a Python in a forest. Reptiles are part of wildlife and contribute to the ecosystem, often as predators or prey, maintaining food chains and biological balance.

Photo of a herd of Cheetals (Spotted Deer).

Fig. 2.18 depicts a herd of Cheetals (Spotted Deer). Herbivores like deer are vital components of ecosystems, serving as food sources for carnivores and influencing vegetation structure through grazing.

Photo of a herd of Elephants in Kaziranga National Park.

Fig. 2.19 shows a herd of Elephants in Kaziranga National Park. Large mammals like elephants play crucial roles in shaping habitats through their foraging and movement, highlighting the importance of wildlife in maintaining ecological diversity and the need for protected areas like national parks.

Fig. 2.17 shows a Black buck. This species is highlighted as needing protection, underscoring the vulnerability of many wildlife species to threats like hunting and habitat loss and the importance of conservation efforts.

Distribution Of Natural Vegetation

The distribution and growth of natural vegetation across the globe are primarily determined by the availability of **temperature and moisture**. Based on these climatic factors, the major types of vegetation are categorised as **forests, grasslands, scrubs, and tundra**.

Different vegetation types thrive under specific conditions:

Areas receiving **heavy rainfall** support the growth of large trees, forming **forests**. Forests are typically found where water supply is abundant.
As the amount of moisture decreases, the size and density of trees also reduce. Regions with **moderate rainfall** are characterised by shorter, scattered trees and abundant grasses, forming **grasslands**.
**Dry areas** with **low rainfall** support the growth of thorny shrubs and scrubs. Plants in these regions have adaptations like deep roots and waxy/thorny leaves to minimise moisture loss through transpiration.
The cold **Polar Regions** have **Tundra vegetation**, which primarily consists of mosses and lichens due to the extremely low temperatures and short growing season.

Photo showing the transition between Grassland and Forest vegetation types.

Fig. 2.13 depicts the transition between grassland and forest vegetation types. This illustrates how changes in environmental factors, particularly moisture availability, can lead to different vegetation structures within a landscape.

The significant increase in the global human population over the past two centuries has placed immense pressure on natural vegetation. Large areas of forests have been cleared to make way for agricultural land to feed the growing numbers. As a result, forest cover worldwide is diminishing rapidly, making the conservation of this valuable resource an urgent necessity.

Conservation Of Natural Vegetation And Wildlife

**Forests are a vital wealth** for any region, providing essential ecological services and maintaining ecosystems. Plants offer shelter to animals, and together, they ensure the balance of the natural environment. However, changes in climate and increasing **human interference** are causing the loss of natural habitats for countless plant and animal species.

This habitat loss and other pressures have led to many species becoming **vulnerable** (at risk of endangerment), **endangered** (facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild), and some are tragically on the **verge of extinction**. Factors that accelerate the extinction process include:

Deforestation
Soil erosion
Construction activities (development projects)
Forest fires
Natural disasters like tsunamis and landslides (which can destroy habitats)

One of the most significant concerns for wildlife is **poaching**, which involves the illegal hunting and killing of animals. Poaching leads to a sharp decline in species populations, driven by the demand for animal products like hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns, and feathers. Animals commonly targeted by poachers include tigers, lions, elephants, deer, black bucks, crocodiles, rhinoceroses, snow leopards, ostriches, and peacocks.

Conservation efforts are crucial to protect these valuable resources. Measures include creating **National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Biosphere Reserves**. These are protected areas established to conserve natural vegetation and wildlife in their natural habitats.

It is also necessary to conserve specific fragile ecosystems like creeks, lakes, and wetlands, which are vital habitats for numerous species. Maintaining a **balance in the environment** depends on preserving the relative numbers and interactions of different species. Human activities in many parts of the world have disrupted the natural habitats of many species, contributing to the decline and extinction of birds and animals due to indiscriminate killing or habitat destruction.

Source 2.17 mentions the plight of vultures in the Indian subcontinent, dying due to kidney failure after feeding on livestock treated with the painkiller diclofenac. This highlights how human practices (veterinary medicine) can indirectly devastate wildlife populations and the efforts needed (banning harmful drugs, captive breeding) to conserve endangered species.

**Awareness programmes** are essential to foster a sense of responsibility towards conservation. Initiatives like social forestry and Vanamahotsava (a festival of tree planting) should be promoted at regional and community levels. Educating school children, encouraging them to observe birds and visit nature camps, can help them appreciate the natural habitats and the diversity of species.

Many countries have enacted laws to prohibit the **trade and killing of birds and animals**. In India, for example, hunting and killing specific animals like lions, tigers, deer, the great Indian bustard, and peacocks are illegal.

**CITES** (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement among governments. Its purpose is to ensure that international trade in wild plant and animal specimens does not threaten their survival in the wild. It protects thousands of species, including bears, dolphins, cacti, corals, orchids, and aloes, by regulating or prohibiting their trade.

Ultimately, the conservation of plants and animals is not just a legal or governmental responsibility but an **ethical duty** for every citizen.